Media Bias in the U.S. Politics

Media Bias in the U.S. Politics Executive Summary Media refers to lopsided reporting rather than inaccuracy of presenting information. Media bias in favor of corporate groups is as a result of ownership. Media bias requires that both sides who claim bias be considered because most of the time if favored sides consider the media biased against them at some level. In the U.S. politics, it is considered that liberal journalists reduce their aggressiveness when handling conservative groups to avoid being labeled as biased.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Media Bias in the U.S. Politics specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, the bias streams because they set double standards when a Democrat is being interviewed. The main cause of media bias apart from the influence of power is the profit-maximizing objective. Matters that are weird are considered unexpected, and exciting. A touchy visual impression is also considered as newsworthy. This make s the selection of topical issues, and photos to be biased towards cuteness. Introduction The media refer to whole groups of materials that used to pass information to the masses. They include printed material such as newspapers, and magazines. They also include electronic materials such as TV, film, radio, video, videogames and the Internet (Sanson et al. 7) Media bias does not mean that the reporting is inaccurate or dishonest but preference to cover one side of a story. The main reason given by Groseclose Milyo for not labelling media bias as dishonesty or inaccuracy is the fact that rarely do reporters make dishonest statements. A better name would be ‘slanted’ in case of one-sided reports. Groseclose Milyo point out a case where â€Å"a journalist chose facts or stories that only one side of the political spectrum is likely to mention† (para. 40). Mackay and Sloan discuss the case where media groups would not cover business stories unless they are about ev ents such as â€Å"national strikes, layoffs, shortages, or rising prices† (218). All these events are bad news for businesses, and the consumer. Background Groseclose Milyo emphasize the use of information from one side of a story, and reporting it as the only fact available. They give the statement issued by an editor in Los Angeles who said that a story did not need to happen all that was needed was â€Å"to get other people to make the same points and draw the same conclusions and then write the article in their words† (para. 3). In this case the conclusions are made without real contest between opposing sides. Reporters may behave like the common people who seek proof that justifies their claim or information that supports their theories (35).Advertising Looking for research paper on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Media bias may be caused by the preference of a segment of t he public. It is noted that the consumer may prefer a media outlet when it highlights information that conforms to their prior beliefs and practices. In this case, media bias is pushed by a profit motive to suit their customers. Chiang and Bright state that â€Å"readers believe that outlets have a credible news if the reports conform to their beliefs† (3). This form of bias is also found when handling religious issues. Christian leaders themselves are fond of talking about a title known as ‘Christian failure narrative’ (Wright and Zozula 3). In this case, pastors seek attention through stories of failure. Wright and Zozula consider such stories to include â€Å"Christians acting immorally, not evangelizing, not loving their neighbors †¦ or simply not living to their beliefs† (3). The selection of parts to be covered in newsrooms depends on editors. Stocking and Gross agree with the finding that â€Å"news editors’ values and attitudes shape t he selection of news† (13). When values and attitudes are used to select news coverage, objectivity is reduced to bias. Mackay and Sloan review a statement by Perkins in which the media hardly reported a massive â€Å"24,000 documented acts of corporate law breaking in 1998 alone† (214). The main reason for the censure of this information by the media is because it had a connection with the working masses, and Unionists. It is recognized that a big portion of media personalities mainly hold liberal ideologies. When people with the same ideologies discuss issues they seem to have an easy time in what Eveland and Shah call â€Å"safe discussion† (113). The perception of media bias may come out when a journalist interviews a Republican candidate. They themselves are mostly considered to be liberal. In this case, the perceived media bias comes from the state of the mind of the viewer. Eveland and Shah point out that to â€Å"to assess news bias, one must have a stan dard of what unbiased should be† (106). Individuals with concerns of media bias are most likely to categorize a news coverage as biased than those who never had prior thoughts on media bias. The environment where one stays may also have an impact on the perceived media bias. It is considered that views are not only obtained from news content but also â€Å"from the frequency of opinions heard in public discussion† (105). Eveland and Shah analyze that perceived media bias may be a result of interpersonal factors rather than the news itself.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Media Bias in the U.S. Politics specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Process of media bias Categorization is a type of bias found on reporters that tends to instantly label events as the ones that are stored in their memory. It is easier for a reporter to quickly categorize a group outburst as a riot because picture matches the one stored in the memory (Stocking and Gross 20). This kind of categorization is found in practice in cases such as the labeling of American military involvement outside its territories as â€Å"another Vietnam†. When this happens, the following analysis will try to find similar characteristics between such events such as costs incurred, and marine casualties. Theory generation is another bias that is derived from categorization. Reporters select theories that support their categorization. When a theory has been developed, subsequent questions will be testing the accuracy of the generated theory. The reporters are tempted to â€Å"select incoming information that is consistent with their theories† (Stocking and Gross 21). Part of the bias is generated by the reporters integrating and interpreting pieces of information. Journalists must also give semblances from their memory, compare and reconstruct past events. Salience is a process in which a reporter can lay more emphas is on particular characteristics while ignoring others that have an impact on the debate at hand. Sometimes the important aspects are ignored for the sake of popular features (Stockings and Gross 48). With reporters using more of less reliable sources, the public mostly remembers information obtained from unreliable sources. Stockings and Gross suggest that the reporters preference of unreliable sources may be a â€Å"function of people’s failure to see the relevance of base-rate data† (50). The preference comes from the fact that less reliable case sources have vivid descriptions compared to base-rate information. Media bias in political alignment is cyclical. It is noted that the media bias was liberal in the early 1990s but shifted to favor conservatives after 2000. The entry of new media companies such as Fox News is considered to have provided the market with a shift in objectives towards profit-maximization (Gasper 11). Gasper mentions that the media favors diffe rent sides in different periods.Advertising Looking for research paper on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More It is argued that journalists would seek to find bits of information that support their beliefs. Vallone, Ross and Lepper propose that a contested issue on the media would be inconclusive and increase polarization (577). This is because people would immediately endorse facts that support their side and dismiss those that are against their side. Politics Media bias in politics is practiced when a reporter treats one side of competing parties less aggressively as he/she would have treated another party. In the U.S., reporters are considered to belong a party themselves. Most of them are either moderate or liberal Democrats. This makes most Republican presidential candidates to be treated less aggressively because the reporters avoid being branded the â€Å"enemy†. The case is different when a Democratic candidate is being interviewed or analyzed. The bias takes a different shape in that â€Å"the more he likes and agrees with the candidate personally, the harder he judges him professionally† (Groseclose Milyo para. 14). All news outlets had a strong liberal bias â€Å"except for Fox News’ Special Report and the Washington Times† (Groseclose Milyo para. 5). New York Times and CBS Evening News showed a slight deviation from the average Democrat citing of think tanks. Fox News was considered full of conservatives while the New York Times was full of liberals. Both sides perceive the other as the one with the bias. Economics Media bias in economics takes a different perspective given by economic reports from government sources. An example mentioned by Groseclose Milyo is the case where a report given by authorities indicates growth of GDP by a large margin. A newspaper instead chooses a headline that reads â€Å"GDP Growth Less than Expected† (para. 19). This contradicts the positive reception of the previous report from the public. In another case that occurred in March 1, 2002, the New York Times reported the changes in the IR S that would increase the rates of taxes collected from salaried groups while reducing rates from those who earned above $100,000. It also reduced audits on those who earned above $100,000 and increased audits for those who relied on salaries. They criticize the need to increase the frequency of audits for the working poor instead of those who earned above $100,000. Their reasoning was those who earned above $100,000 did not rely on payrolls and could easily shortchange the taxation authorities. Groseclose Milyo discuss that the facts were accurate and true but major news outlets such as â€Å"ABC’s Good Morning America and CNN’s Newsnight failed to mention any of these facts† (para. 43). Matters of justice Media bias in reporting major cases that are undergoing in the courts may seem to portray one side as winning or losing long before the judgement is made. Stocking and Gross consider Ginny Foat’s case who once was the president of the California chapt er of the National Organization for Women. She accused reporters of selecting views that made her seem guilty (Stockings and Gross 43). Another case of media bias is noted about Birmingham News in 2004. The government had withdrawn 31 counts of malpractices that portrayed Richard M. Scrushy, former CEO of Healthsouth, as fraudulent, and added four counts. The media reported the additional 4 counts of fraud without mentioning the 31 counts that had been withdrawn (Mackay and Sloan 218). Media bias against labor The media is considered to report preferably the views of the corporate groups to laborers’ sentiments. Mackay and Sloan review the situation in which the General Motors is considered more influential in the media than the United Auto workers. The media would give a coverage that suits the interest of General Motors rather than the laborers in case of a workers’ strike. Mackay and Sloan distinguish the bias against labor into three categories. These are â€Å"un fair media coverage, connection to corporate owned media, and lack of a labor beat† (219). Lack of a labor beat means there is barely a distinct section in the media that adequately covers labor issues. The pro-management bias is derived from the fact that most media outlets belong to the corporate class, and the editors do their best to reflect some of the values of the media owners. Durante and Knight discuss the influence that Berlusconi has in the media in Italy. They are two categories of media ownership in the country. Some are privately owned, and others publicly owned. It is argued that media bias exists due to â€Å"Berlusconi’s influence over private television and the strong influence of the ruling coalition on public† (Durante and Knight 5). His influence on the public media side as Prime Minister, and on privately owned media because of ownership. Media bias against environmental concerns The media chooses topical issues according to the degree that they can capture viewers’ and listeners’ attention. For this reason, environmental matters are sidelined in news coverage. Mackay and Sloan mention that â€Å"environmental stories lack the human interest angle† (137). They discuss the situation where a seal plague had resulted in a large number of seal deaths. British media invented the slogan â€Å"Save Our Seals† running for about a year. This is because seals give a preferred visual impression. Were the extinction of a species such as beetles then it could not receive much publicity. As Mackay and Sloan point out, the reason is that beetles lack the cuteness of seals (137). Visual impressions are used to market media products such as newspapers and programs. The media personalities are considered to overlook the benefits of capitalism. Situations which involve â€Å"poisonous waste dumping by companies or nuclear plant accidents† fail to meet the broadcast requirements (Mackay and Sloan 138). W ithout enough coverage of environmental matters then environmental degradation will continue. Chiang and Bright note that â€Å"newspaper slant is similar to the position that would be chosen by a profit-maximizing firm† (4). It is the responsibility of reporters to ensure that the public is well-informed about the choices they make that have an impact on the environment. Media bias on military issues The double standards are set in reporting cases that involve the American citizens suffering in instances such as hurricanes or terrorism. People suffering under America’s military operations a receive slanted coverage. A case of such coverage is seen in Iraq where the media coverage is mostly about soldiers dying while ignoring the necessary humanitarian services carried out by the American Marines. This kind of reporting makes people to pressure on withdrawal of troops instead of supporting the operations carried out by the Americans in Iraq (Mackay and Sloan 161). Acco rding to Mackay and Sloan, the â€Å"media’s overall sense is that the war is a disaster† (166). Media bias in military operations is noted in the selection of photos that are used as to make news headlines. In the case for the U.S military operations in Somalia the photos lead to massive emotional outbursts leading to the withdrawal of American troops. Religion It is believed that the media portrays the Christian Community as either in crisis or failing to live according to the set standards. Wright and Zozula discuss that the media treat religion negatively because it considers â€Å"conservative religions as a threat to its liberal agenda† (2). According to a statistical research carried out by Pew Forum and Public Life in 2009, it found out that 35% of Americans concur that the media does not portray religion positively. The media is seen as treating favorably mainstream religious groups while undermining upcoming religious groups. Journalists are biased aga inst the media because of two reasons. Being less religious than the population makes journalists lack empathy or a clear understanding to interpret religious contexts. Another reason is that journalists â€Å"create news rather than objectively or neutrally reporting it† (Wright and Zozula 3). They report issues that are unusual because of the excitement and attention that is raised by such topics. Wright and Zozula point out that by Christians condemning themselves, the media uses this as proof to portray them negatively (6). The motive is what creates a difference, Christians view self-incriminating as a confession while the journalists consider it as evidence. Media Responsibility Voters rely on the media to be informed about the contesting candidates in elections. Most voters do not have adequate information on all candidates. The challenge arising from relying on the media is that â€Å"such information may not be sufficiently objective† (Chiang and Bright 1). Pe ople expect voters to be rational and filter out the biases that may be broadcast by the media. People may filter media bias when there is a low level of media credibility. The influence of the media bias is functional in swaying voters to a particular side if the bias is supported by many media outlets. According to Chiang and Bright, the influence increases depending on â€Å"the credibility of the endorsement and that endorsement from extremely biased newspapers have little or no influence† (2). Digital media and credibility Flanagin and Metzger discuss that credibility measures how a piece of information is likely to be believed. This relies on two main properties of the source which are â€Å"trustworthiness and expertise† (8). However, they note that physical attractiveness and charisma of the reporter may increase the likelihood to be believed. Credibility may increase if the source is a well known figure or media outlet. For example, if the Guardian Newspaper p osts a piece of information on the website it may be easily believed than a source that is not on the mainstream media. With the widespread use of information technology, it is perceived that the youth expects information instantly when needed. The sources are many such that it is difficult to know who posted the information on the internet. Flanagin and Megtzer argue that â€Å"information posted on the web may not be subject to filtering through professional gatekeepers† (13). Media Responsibility The function of the media is to keep the society informed on all matters that affect humanity. Wells discusses that the responsibility of the media â€Å"is to tell citizens what they need to know to function in their society† (385). Among this comes categories such as advertising with the intention to make society understand the benefits of a product or entertainment to keep the public merry. Media bias denies the public a chance to make rational choices. Recommendations T he preference of eye witnesses should be used in cases where the witness gives a vivid description of the events. Stocking and Gross discuss that people may â€Å"give weight to eye witness accounts when such accounts contain a lot of detail† (51). Psychologists compare the use of eye witnesses in courts to verify the truth as a practice to emulate. Mackay and Sloan recommend the need to separate labor news from the general business news for it to receive a fair news coverage. Journalists should be objective when handling reports that involve laborers versus management (225). There are cases where both sides agree on the presence of media bias but on different directions. A similar case is that of Israeli and Arabs about the Beirut massacre of 1982. Both sides believed there is media bias but each side thought it favored the other side. It is considered there are â€Å"sharp disagreement about the direction of the alleged bias† (Vallone, Ross and Lepper 578). This make s it necessary to weigh the complaints of both sides. In most cases, those who think they are favored by a coverage never report media bias. Flanagin and Metzger recommend that the youth, being the main users of digital media, should be taught to test the credibility of digital media. This includes websites. This may be conducted by giving them a comparison of cases of bias. This is necessary because the youth are â€Å"increasingly self-directed, interactive with a network of peers, and reliant on group outreach and knowledge† (Flanagin and Metzger 20). Sanson et al. recommend that ethnic and cultural groups be represented in mainstream media to avoid stereotyping and ridicule of certain groups (7). They recommend a shift from the current emphasis of exciting news to those that cover all aspects of socioeconomic factors. They also recommend that the public should complain about media bias especially in instances that affect psychology. To skip certain programs in protest for change. Parents are supposed to control what their children view. They can review scenes portraying violence, and unhealthy advertising. Sanson et al. recommend that children should be trained in handling the media interactively as part of their school curriculum (6). Conclusion Most people have learnt to verify sources of information. They use their experiences and understanding to make decisions. Metgzer notes that â€Å"people’s evaluative strategies evolve with experience (19). Studies indicate that the youth do not put much weight on the credibility of information. This makes it necessary to introduce media education in schools to make the youth develop skills to assess credibility of information. There is still a problem of separating media outlets from the influence of their owners. This is because mainstream media involve a lot of capital which can only come from the influential few. In spite of these factors, mainstream media is more credible than other small-sized media outlets. Chiang, Chun F. and Brian Knight. Media Bias and Influence: Evidence from Newspaper Endorsements. Providence, Rhode Island: Brown University, Oct. 2008. Web. Nov 18. 2012. econ.brown.edu/fac/brian_knight/endorsements4.pdf Durante, Ruben and Brian Knight. Partisan Control, Media Bias, and Viewer Responses: Evidence from Berlusconi’s Italy. Massachusetts: NBER, 2009. Web. Nov, 18. 2012. nber.org/papers/w14762.pdf Eveland, William P., and Dhavan Shah. â€Å"The Impact of Individual and Interpersonal Factors on Perceived News Media Bias.† Political Psychology. (2003) Vol. 24, No. 1. Web. Nov 18. 2012. journalism.wisc.edu/~dshah/PP2003.pdf Flanagin, Andrew J. and Miriam J. Metzger. Digital Media and Youth: Unparalleled Opportunity and Unprecedented Responsibility. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2008. Web. Nov 19. 2012 comm.ucsb.edu/faculty/flanagin/CV/FlanaginMetzger2008(DMYCch1 -. pdf Gasper, John T. Shifting Ideologies? Re-examining Media Bias. Ca rnegie Mellon University, n.d. Web. Nov 18. 2012. andrew.cmu.edu/user/gasper/WorkingPapers/IdeologicalShiftv2.pdf Groseclose, Tim, and Jeff Milyo. A Measure of Media Bias, UCLA and University of Missouri, Dec, 2004. Web. sscnet.ucla.edu/polisci/faculty/groseclose/Media.Bias.8.htm Mackay, Jenn B. and William D. Sloan. Media Bias: Finding It, Fixing It. North Carolina: McFarland Company Publishers, 2007. Print. Sanson, Anne, Julie Duck, Glen Cupit, Judy Ungerer, Carl Scuderi, and Jeanna Sutton. Media Representations and Responsibilities: Psychological Perspectives. The Austarlian Psychological Society, July 2000. Web. psychology.org.au/Assets/Files/media_position_paper.pdf Stocking, Holly S. and Paget H. Gross. How Do Journalist Think? A proposal for the Study of Cognitive Bias in Newsmaking, Bloomington: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills, 1989. Web. eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED309463.pdf Vallone, Robert P., Ross Lee, and Mark R. Lepper. â€Å"The Hostile Media Phenomeno n: Biased Perception and Perceptions of Media Bias in Coverage of the Beirut Massacre.† Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. (1985): Vol. 49, No. 3, 577-585. Wells, Allan. Mass media Society. Greenwich: Ablex Publishing Corporation, 1997. Print. Wright, Bradley R. E and Zozula Christina. â€Å"Bad News about the Good News. The construction of the Christian Failure Narrative.† University of Connecticut and University of Virginia: The Kripke Center, Journal of Religion Society Vol 14, 2012.

Diversity's Influence on Virtual Teams in International Business Essay

Diversity's Influence on Virtual Teams in International Business - Essay Example , and organizational boundaries through the use of technology to facilitate communication and collaboration, are the outcome of teamwork in firms and increased geographic dispersion (Lipnack & Stamps, 2000; Snow, Lipnack, & Stamps, 2001). Organizations are relying more heavily on virtual teams due to a more competitive global market, the benefits of integrating the work of specialized employees who might be geographically dispersed, and the need to save time and travel expenses (Kock, 2000; Mohrman, 1999; Townsend, DeMarie, & Hendrickson, 1998). Virtual teams allow organizations to expand potential labor markets by continually altering and improving organizational processes to capitalize on strengths, which is especially importance in a global environment that has become increasingly competitive (Duarte & Synder, 1999). Time is a crucial corporate resource; communication technologies help organizations avoid delays and attain immediate feedback (Opper & Fersko-Weiss, 1992). Moreover, communication tools allow team members to work on projects at a much quicker pace than if they had to travel and meet face-to-face and permit organizations to use â€Å"relay race† procedures to accomplish tasks, resulting in a continuous workflow (Cascio, 1999). For example, as Texas employees are leaving for work, team members in Hawaii are just beginning their day. These team members finish their day and transmit their work to team members in Bombay who are starting the workday. Finally, the Bombay team members contribute to the project and then send it back to Texas for further work. This â€Å"relay race† continues until the project is completed, which should require, which should require less time due to the virtual tools that allow these team members to work round the clock. In reference to softwar e development teams, Gorton and Motwani (1996) referred to this process as â€Å"software shift work† in which teams in different time zones work on a product in continuous

Islamic Art and Architecture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Islamic Art and Architecture - Essay Example Under caliphs 'Abd al-Malik, al-Wahid I and al-Wahid II, the sense of dynastic pride indulged through a heady consciousness of family power found its most public expression in ambitious building campaigns Between 690 and 750, architecture became a family business backed by the immense financial resources of the Islamic state swollen by the accumulated booty of the Arab conquests and by the taxation revenue which came pouring in at the disposal of the Umayyad builders. "There was both the will and the means to embark on grandiose building projects." Undue parochialism was avoided although there was the exclusivity of the massive building programme of the Umayyads in Syria: most favoured land in the Islamic empire, Damascus its principal city is the capital of the empire, agricultural installations, abundant wealth. Importing craftsmen and materials from the Byzantium to Aphrodito in Upper Egypt documents an Islamic corve system One governor provided money to cover living expenses of men to work on the Damascus mosque Stucco sculpture of Persian type, Iraqi techniques of vault construction, mouldings from south-eastern Anatolia, figural style in Coptic sculpture evidence style and building practice of Syria. Position of Syria draw inspiration from the major cultures yoked together to bring Graeco-Roman, Egypt, North Africa, Arabia, Mesopotamia and Persia. "The fact that those same Umayyads were not a family of local Syrian notables but the representatives of the greatest empire in the contemporary world gave their art a mission of the utmost seriousness." Forms and ideas of classical art were much better understood in Syria that entered the bloodstream of Islamic art resulting to familiar Western column... Undue parochialism was avoided although there was the exclusivity of the massive building programme of the Umayyads in Syria: most favoured land in the Islamic empire, Damascus its principal city is the capital of the empire, agricultural installations, abundant wealth. "The fact that those same Umayyads were not a family of local Syrian notables but the representatives of the greatest empire in the contemporary world gave their art a mission of the utmost seriousness." The helicoidal tower of the Ibn Tulun mosque in Cairo composed of a central cylinder around which twists an external stircase which Hillenbrand suggested to have originated from Zoroastrian Persia towers of the more ancient Mesopotamian ziggurat Abbasid art is much understood through Samarra as new way of carving surfaces called bevelled style and repetition of abstract geometric or pseudo-vegetal forms called arabesque were used as wall decoration Jawhar the Sicilian, commander of the Fatimid troops sent by the Fatimid Caliph Almuiz to conquer Egypt, founded Cairo in 358 AH / 969 SD and built Al-Azhar mosque, now including the Al-Azhar University It is characterised by major technical

The most significant factors that contributed society Essay Example for Free

The most significant factors that contributed society Essay A.One of the most significant that contributed to the expansion of the United States was the California Gold Rush that started in 1848. In 1848, word of a bounty of gold to be found in California caught the attention of many easterners. They had dreams of becoming rich. So in the year 1849, many men left their families and homes for the California wilds to make their fortune. They figured that a year away from home was worth the riches they would return with. These men were referred to as â€Å"forty-niners† as they left in the year 1849. As hundreds of gold seekers flooded California, the gold eventually ran out. Thousands of people made the journey west for gold. Many stayed seeing the potential of the new western land. This also gave way to farming the fertile land of California. Farmers came and stayed to sustain the new population and eventual state. This helped make the state what it is today. It is still a place where thousands of people live trying to eek out a living or become rich. see more:among the historical changes that stimulated the development of sociology as a discipline was Another contributor to the expansion of the United States was the Oklahoma Land Rush of 1889. In one day the city of Guthrie exploded into a population of ten thousand residents. The government opened land in the state as a first come first served basis. People lined up to stake their claim on land at the border. At 12 noon, the barriers were lifted and one of the most chaotic events in history unfolded. Hundreds of people on foot, wagon and horseback bolted for their unclaimed property. Within hours, almost all of the plotted out townships were taken. This expansion contributed greatly to the population moving west and economically gave a boost to the new â€Å"frontier†. It was one of the biggest and fastest western moves in history. B.Mesopotamia was one of the most significant factors that contributed to the development of society today. Mesopotamians were a highly intelligent people. Their society revolved around a temple with a priest acting on behalf of their God. Later these priests were more like kings but still were considered a mouthpiece for God. The Mesopotamians wrote down all of their laws on tablets. No one, not even the king, was above the law. This  way of governing trickled down through societies to today. The metal workers developed a way of using furnaces to heat their metal works to make them stronger. This act of smelting was passed throughout other areas and countries. Smelting made the metal much stronger. The land of Mesopotamia was fertile. The location of the two rivers led to irrigation of farmland, while the hospitable climate made farming an easy prospect. This led the people to change from hunters and gatherers to a more sophisticated society rather quickly. This leads me to believ e that agriculture was the most significant factor in the development of their society as a whole. The Mesopotamians began to export their goods they invented. Axes for war and building, pottery wheels, and glass are just a few of the exported goods. They were thought to have also invented the wheel. The wheel made everyday life so much easier for their people and others as this invention was spread around. The use of a divided day and night into two 12 hour blocks was made by the Mesopotamioans to make trade easier with other cities. They then divided their weeks into seven days. The Jewish people then made this seven day calendar into Sundays as a day of rest and worship which then morphed into our modern day weekend. Currency was also developed by the Mesopotamians to make trade easier. The worth of a cow, pottery and a slave, was all written down to make trade fare. Mesopotamia contribute to many economic cultures by starting this way of fare trade. Mesopotamia and Egypt used cultural exchange through war, trade and migration to diffuse their two cultures. With these two rivers of Tigris and Euphrates so easily accessable for both cultures, trade was easily obtained while workers were needed to help with the progression of cultural advancement. Trade and warfare were huge factors in diffusion of these two cultures. Both Mesopotamia and Egypt began to depend on the other for various trades of produce, animals, products, and people. References The Oregon Trail, 2011, Boettcher/Trinklein Inc., www.america101.us/trail/Oregontrail.html The Rush to Oklahoma, 1889 Harpers Weekly, William Willard Howard, www.library.cornell.edu Walker, Ann-Marie, The California Gold Rush Led to Development and Expansion of the United States, August 2011, voice.yahoo.com Annenberg Learner, Video on Demand, The Western Tradition, Mesopotamia, Guisepi, Robert, Egypt and Mesopotamia Compared, The Origins of Civilizations, history-world.org

Cartesian Dualism and the Union of Mind and Body Essay -- Dualism Essay

Cartesian Dualism and the Union of Mind and Body ABSTRACT: Cartesian dualism and the union of mind and body are often understood as conceptions that contradict each other. Diachronic interpretations maintain that Descartes was first a dualist (in the Meditations) and later on developed his stance on the union of mind and body (Passions). Some authors find here a problem without solution. Nevertheless, in the last two decades, some interpretations have been developed intending to give a positive solution to the difficult relation between Cartesian dualism and the union of mind and body. The problem that I find in most of them is that they try to show no incoherence between Descartes' dualism and his conception of the union and interaction by "weakening" or making more "flexible" the dualist doctrine. I develop a synchronic interpretation, based on textual evidence, in order to show that dualism and union appeared simultaneously in Descartes' works. Under this perspective, my claim is that Cartesian radical dualism and the union of m ind and body can be coherently understood only because they belong to different domains of knowledge. Thought and matter are clear and distinct primitive notions that come from reason, whose role is laying the foundations for Cartesian metaphysics and physics, while the primitive notion of union is acquired by the senses and lacks clarity and distinction even while it serves the objective of founding Descartes' moral philosophy. Rene Descartes is well known for his dualist conception. At the same time, Descartes recognized the intimate relation between the human mind and body. Several authors have understood this as a contradiction within Cartesian philosophy. Truly, when Descartes argues in fa... ... (10) A. Kenny 1968: Descartes: A Study of the Philosophy (Nueva York: Random House) p. 224. (11) D. Garber 1983: "Understanding Interaction: what Descartes should have told Elisabeth," Southern Journal of Philosophy, 21, p. 21. (12) Ibid., p. 27. (13) Ibid., p. 29. (14) Cf. Richardson, Op. Cit.; Garber, Op. Cit. and 1992: (15) Descartes Metaphysical Physics (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press); Cottingham, Op, Cit.; Bentez, Op. Cit. and 1993b: El Interaccionismo Cartesiano y el Problema de la Glndula Pineal, in L. Bentez, ed., Homenaje a Descartes (Mexico: FFyL-UNAM); Madanes 1993: Abandonamos la Partida? Consideraciones sobre el Problema de la Relacin Mente-Cuerpo, in Bentez 1993a, Op. Cit. (16) I am working on this subject, especially on the Cartesian semantics where I think we can find the arguments that point to an answer to this problem.

History and Comparison of Windows, Linux, and Apple Essay

An operating system is a set of programs containing instructions that work together to coordinate all the activities among computer hardware resources. Most operating systems perform similar functions that include starting and shutting down a computer, providing a user interface, managing programs, managing memory, coordinating tasks, configuring devices, establishing an Internet connection, monitoring performance, providing file management and other utilities, and automatically updating itself and certain utility programs (Shelly p. 398). There are three major operating systems that exist today that are going to be compared to decide which operating system could be best for different user purposes. The three operating systems are Windows, Linux, and Apple. Windows operating system is developed and maintained by Microsoft in Seattle, WA. The Microsoft Company was developed by Bill Gates. The first version of the Windows operating system was released in 1985, and has been the leading operating system used by 90% of users (Satyam). It is used by the Server 2008 R2 (Satyam). Windows is a Graphical User Interface (GUI) which allows its users to manage files and run software programs easily on desktop and laptop computers (Satyam). On the desktop, icons are used to represent programs that are easy to find and can be clicked to easily access and run the program of choice. Windows is also very popular because of its user interface programs such as Microsoft Office, which include Microsoft Word, Microsoft Power Point, and Microsoft Office Outlook. Windows also has a great reputation for its high and efficient security. Some popular Windows editions are Win 98, Win 2000, Win Me, Windows NT, Windows CE, Win 2003, Win XP, Win Vista and Windows 7 ( Satyam). Windows 8 is now the new successor of Windows 7 and is now available. Linux (Linus’ Unix) is a leading server operating system, and is used for running the top 10 fastest supercomputers in the world (Satyam). Linus Torwalds created Linux, and is the current owner of the Linux Trademark (Satyam). LIndows, Lycoris, Red Hat, SuSe, Mandrake, Knopping, Slackware are the various companies that distribute the Linux operating system (Satyam). NASlite is a version of the Linux operating system that runs off of a single floppy disk and converts an old computer into a file server (Satyam). Some popular versions of Linux include Debian, Fedora, and Red Hat. This operating system is ranked just below Windows operating system, but is quickly becoming popular and is predicted to give future Windows some tough competition. Since 1984, Mac OS 9 had been Apple’s primary operating system, but has been recently succeeded by Mac OS X. Mac OS X is a sequence of Unix-based operating systems and GUI’s developed, marketed and sold by Apple (Satyam). Mac OS X is user friendly, and is popular for its plug-and-play support, which means the operating system automatically configures new devices as they are installed (Shelly p. 408). As stated in the beginning of this paper, Windows, Linux, and Apple are the three most popular operating systems with Windows as the most popular of the three with 85% to 90% of personal computers using this operating system (Satyam). Compared to Windows, Mac is used by fewer people, but is more reliable and less likely to fail than Windows OS because of Mac regularly monitoring and the software and hardware add-ons. Linux is the least popular of the three and is based on UNIX, which has been used for more than three decades that now powers about 90% of Web sites (Satyam). Compared to both Mac and Windows, Linux is an open source project, meaning anyone can modify the Linux Code (Satyam). Linux offers great security and flexibility compared to Windows and Mac, but it takes a great deal of knowledge to install and operate the Linux operating system. Linux is also very much less expensive or even free compared to Windows operating system. When using a server, Linux is much cheaper compared to Windows because Microsoft only allows only a single copy to be used on one computer. However, once Linux is purchased, it can be used on any number of computers at no additional charge (Satyam). Windows can make it difficult for users to store user information and settings and switch to a new computer, but Linux stores the user’s data in the home directory, making it easier to transfer from an old to a new computer (Satyam). In conclusion, Linux is much more secure, reliable, flexible, and more cost efficient than Windows or Mac, but much more difficult to install, understand and operate, it is ideal for industry sectors. Windows and Mac operating systems are much easier for personal use and require less knowledge than Linux operating system. Windows and Mac, however, are more expensive, but are more widely used than Linux, with Windows leading the three in popularity. References Shelly, G. B., & Vermaat, M. E. (2011). Discovering Computers 2011: Living in a Digital World, Complete (pp. 398-408). Boston, MA: Course Technology, Cengage Learning. Satyam. (2011, June 29). Windows, Linux or Mac OS A Comparison. In HackDigital. Retrieved September 26, 2012, from Google.

Essay on Who Controls Macbeths Mind - 784 Words

You may think that MacBeth is one hundred percent guilty and should receive a heavy punishment for his actions. But, have you ever considered the possibility that he may not have been responsible for them? Because he should not be held responsible for something he had no control over. I would like to point out that it was the Weird Sisters who told him prophesies which he then believed. It was his wife, Lady MacBeth, who pressured and convinced him to go through with the killings. And tell me, would any sane person commit the amount of crimes that MacBeth has? He has a mental condition that makes him go insane and start seeing things that are not actually there. These hallucinations are just one of the many causes that contribute to his†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"When Lady MacBeth receives the letter from MacBeth telling her that he wants to kill Duncan, she fears that he would not have the courage to go through with it† (Shakespeare 31). She brings out the worst in h im and encourages him to kill King Duncan. She persuades him by constantly telling him negative things to get MacBeth to believe that he is doing the right thing. â€Å"Look like th’ innocent flower, but be the serpent under ’t† (Shakespeare 35). Lady MacBeth is the one who tells MacBeth to be this vicious creature and makes him think that killing King Duncan is okay. Because of Lady Macbeth’s behavior, MacBeth was led to become a murderer. Macbeth should not be held accountable for his actions since Lady MacBeth is the one who convinced him to commit the crime that started his madness and turn him into a monster. And now, because the Weird Sisters told him prophesies and Lady MacBeth turned MacBeth into a savage, he has become mentally ill. His insanity starts even before he kills King Duncan. â€Å"While on his way to murder the King, he is convinced he sees a bloody dagger leading him up to Duncan’s room† (Shakespeare 51). Obviously, ther e could not be a dagger hanging in front of him and actually move by itself. This hallucination is just one example of how insane he is, and this is even before he killed anyone. And MacBeth’s insanity only gets worse at the feast. â€Å"At the feast, MacBeth is convinced that he sees Banquo’sShow MoreRelated Darkness and the Agents of Chaos in Shakespeares Macbeth Essay1380 Words   |  6 Pagesrepresents a characters control over their lives.   The imagery of darkness in Act 4 is used to describe the agents of disorder.  Ã‚   Within Macbeth Shakespeare demonstrates imagery and symbolism through Macbeths self-doubt, his inability to connect word and act, sexual potency, sleep, and darkness.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   On the heath of Scotland at the opening of the play, the wind whips over the barren ground and lightening leaps down from the sky around the subjected, weak man who will come to kill a kingRead MoreEssay On Corruption In Macbeth1109 Words   |  5 Pagesamount of power can corrupt the mind, but absolute power will take over. This is represented throughout history: in politics, monarchies and times like the french revolution. 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